Iroquois Nation

Iroquois Nation with longhouse
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The Iroquois Confederacy influenced the US forefathers while writing the United States Constitution.

Iroquois Nation (Haudenosaunee): Culture, Confederacy, and History

The Iroquois Nation, also known as the Haudenosaunee or “People of the Longhouse,” is one of the most historically influential and politically advanced Indigenous alliances in North America. Originally composed of five tribes—the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca—the confederacy became known as the Six Nations after the Tuscarora joined in 1722.

Origins and Formation of the Iroquois Confederacy

According to Haudenosaunee oral tradition, the confederacy was founded centuries before European contact by the Great Peacemaker and his orator Hiawatha. Together, they persuaded warring nations to unite under a shared vision of peace and cooperative governance. This agreement, called the Great Law of Peace, outlined principles of federalism, checks and balances, and diplomacy—concepts later echoed in the U.S. Constitution.

Geography and Settlement Patterns

The Iroquois originally inhabited regions across present-day upstate New York, Pennsylvania, and parts of Ontario and Quebec. They built permanent villages near waterways, surrounded by palisades for defense. Their communal homes, called longhouses, were constructed of wood and bark and housed multiple related families, which could hold 30 to 60 people from the same matrilineal clan. a

These settlements were permanent but were sometimes relocated every 15–25 years due to depleted soil.

Agriculture and Trade

The Haudenosaunee economy centered around the Three Sisters, corn, beans, and squash. These crops were interplanted to replenish the soil and provide a balanced diet. Men hunted deer, beaver, and turkey, and the Iroquois became vital players in the fur trade, exchanging pelts with Dutch, French, and British traders.

Spiritual Beliefs and Ceremonial Life

Spiritual life was rooted in the concept of Orenda, a mystical force believed to animate all living things. Seasonal ceremonies—such as the Green Corn, Strawberry, and Midwinter festivals—marked renewal and thanksgiving, guided by spiritual leaders and clan mothers. The condolence ceremony, a major ritual for mourning and diplomacy, restored balance to the community following death or conflict.

Society, Gender Roles, and Matrilineal Power

Haudenosaunee society was strikingly egalitarian and matrilineal. Property and clan identity were passed through the mother. Women held immense authority—they appointed and removed male chiefs (sachems), managed agriculture, and ensured the spiritual wellbeing of the nation. Men primarily hunted, conducted diplomacy, and made war, but ultimate authority rested with the clan mothers.

The Grand Council and Consensus Politics

The Iroquois Confederacy was governed by a council of 50 sachems who represented each nation and clan. All decisions required unanimous consent, reflecting the cultural emphasis on harmony and unity. The Onondaga served as the Keepers of the Fire, hosting council meetings and preserving wampum belts—the sacred mnemonic devices that recorded treaties and laws.

Influence on the U.S. Constitution

Founding Fathers like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were influenced by Iroquois political systems. Franklin studied Iroquois diplomacy and unity among diverse nations as a model for colonial union. In 1988, the U.S. Congress formally acknowledged the influence of the Iroquois Confederacy on American democratic principles.

Daily Life and Customs

Iroquois Clans were named after animals—Turtle, Bear, Wolf, Deer, Snipe, and others—and were exogamous, meaning members had to marry outside their own clan. Children belonged to their mother’s clan. Each village had council houses, games fields, and communal cooking fires. Education occurred informally through storytelling, imitation, and direct instruction from elders.

Art, Music, and Symbolism

Iroquois art was deeply symbolic and practical, such as beadwork, pottery, bark scrolls, and wampum belts, all served ceremonial, diplomatic, and daily functions. Lacrosse (or stickball) originated with the Iroquois, used both recreationally and to settle disputes or prepare for war. Music was largely vocal and percussive, used during dances, harvests, and sacred rites.

Warfare, Expansion, and the Beaver Wars

From 1600 to 1700, the Iroquois engaged in the Beaver Wars, expanding their territory and controlling fur trade routes. They displaced or absorbed dozens of tribes across the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. Unlike indiscriminate conquest, captured individuals were often adopted to replace lost kin, a process known as “mourning war” adoption.

Role in the American Revolution

During the Revolutionary War, the Confederacy fractured: the Oneida and Tuscarora sided with the Americans, while the Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga allied with the British. The conflict caused irreversible divisions and brutal retaliations on Iroquois towns, particularly the 1779 Sullivan Expedition, which destroyed dozens of villages and food stores.

Land Loss and Forced Migrations

After the war, the Haudenosaunee lost vast territories through U.S. treaties, many signed under duress or without full council approval. Entire nations were relocated to Canada, Wisconsin, and Oklahoma. The Grand River settlement in Ontario was established for Loyalist Iroquois, led by Joseph Brant. Meanwhile, others were confined to ever-shrinking reservations in New York.

Religious Revivals and Handsome Lake

In the early 1800s, Handsome Lake, a Seneca prophet, led a spiritual revival blending traditional Iroquois teachings with Quaker and Christian values. Known as the Code of Handsome Lake, his message emphasized sobriety, prayer, and respect for family and tradition. The movement revitalized Haudenosaunee identity amid postwar dislocation and land loss.

Famous Mohawk Chiefs and Leaders 

  • Pauline Johnson, Mohawk writer
  • Joseph Brant or  Thayendanegea (March 1743 – November 24, 1807) was a Mohawk military and political leader, based in present-day New York, who was closely associated with Great Britain during and after the American Revolution. 
  • Molly Brant, Mohawk leader, sister of Joseph Brant
  • Joseph Tehawehron David, Mohawk artist
  • Esther Louise Georgette Deer, Mohawk dancer and singer
  • Tracey Deer, Mohawk filmmaker
  • John Deseronto, Mohawk chief
  • Canaqueese, called Flemish Bastard, Mohawk chief
  • Carla Hemlock, quilter, beadwork artist
  • Donald “Babe” Hemlock, woodcarver, sculptor
  • Hiawatha, Mohawk chief
  • Karonghyontye or Captain David Hill, Mohawk leader
  • Kahn-Tineta Horn, activist
  • Kaniehtiio Horn, film and television actress
  • Waneek Horn-Miller, Olympic water polo player
  • Devery Jacobs, actress
  • Sid Jamieson, lacrosse player, coach
  • George Henry Martin Johnson, Mohawk chief and interpreter
  • Pauline Johnson, writer
  • Stan Jonathan, former NHL hockey player
  • Maurice Kenny, author
  • Mary Leaf, basketmaker
  • David R. Maracle, Multi-Instrumentalist, Artist, Carver
  • Derek Miller, singer-songwriter
  • Patricia Monture-Angus, lawyer, activist, educator, and author.
  • Shelley Niro (b. 1954), filmmaker, photographer, and installation artist
  • Richard Oakes, Mohawk activist
  • Ots-Toch, wife of Dutch colonist Cornelius A. Van Slyck
  • Alex Rice, actress
  • Robbie Robertson, singer-songwriter, The Band
  • August Schellenberg, actor
  • Jay Silverheels, actor
  • Skawennati, multimedia artist and curator
  • Saint Kateri Tekakwitha, “Lily of the Mohawks”, a Catholic saint
  • Billy Two Rivers, professional wrestler
  • Taiaiake Alfred, professor and activist.
  • John Norton, Scottish born, adopted into the Mohawk tribe and made an honorary “Pine Tree Chief”

 

Interesting Cultural Facts

  • The Iroquois calendar was based on lunar cycles, with 13 moons and a 28-day month.
  • Wampum belts were used not only for diplomacy but also to swear oaths and preserve oral law.
  • The Two Row Wampum represents the ideal of mutual respect between European settlers and Indigenous nations.
  • Clan animals were more than symbols—they were considered literal relatives and spiritual guides.
  • Iroquois people practiced cradleboard use for infants, contributing to strong posture and child mobility.

Political System and Matrilineal Society

Each tribe had its own chiefs, but ultimate decisions were made by a Grand Council composed of 50 sachems, representing the clans of each nation. Importantly, Haudenosaunee society was matrilineal: women controlled property, selected chiefs, and could depose them. Clan mothers held political and spiritual authority, a rarity in many early societies.

The Confederacy maintained unity through consensus-based governance. Even in times of war, peace negotiations could not move forward unless all six nations agreed. This type of diplomacy helped prevent civil wars within the alliance and increased their negotiating power with European empires.

Role in Colonial and Revolutionary Wars

The Iroquois played a crucial role in North American colonial conflicts. During the Beaver Wars of the 1600s, they expanded their territory through a combination of warfare and diplomacy, dominating trade routes and rival tribes. Their military tactics were feared and respected across the continent.

They allied with the British during the French and Indian War (1754–1763), leveraging their military strength and strategic location. During the American Revolutionary War, the Iroquois were tragically divided. The Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca mostly sided with the British, while the Oneida and Tuscarora supported the colonists. This division led to internal tensions and the loss of influence following the British defeat.

The Sullivan-Clinton Expedition of 1779 devastated Iroquois homelands, destroying crops, towns, and winter food stores. Thousands of Haudenosaunee became refugees, resettling in British-controlled Canada or on marginal lands in New York and Pennsylvania.

Notable Iroquois Leaders

  • Hiawatha – A key figure in founding the Confederacy, symbolized in the Hiawatha Belt used in diplomatic ceremonies.
  • Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea) – A Mohawk military and political leader who allied with the British during the Revolutionary War and later helped secure land in Ontario for displaced Iroquois.
  • Handsome Lake – A Seneca religious leader and prophet who began a spiritual revival in the early 1800s, blending traditional beliefs with Christian elements.
  • Mary Jemison – A white settler adopted by the Seneca as a child, who chose to remain in the tribe her entire life and provided detailed accounts of Iroquois life in the 18th century.
  • Clan Mothers – Though often unnamed in colonial records, the matriarchs who selected and advised the sachems were the backbone of Iroquois governance and social balance.

Cultural Legacy Through Oral Tradition and Symbolism

Much of Iroquois history has been preserved through oral storytelling. Tales of the Peacemaker, Sky Woman, and the Creation Story are passed down through generations. These narratives not only explain the origins of the world but also encode legal, ethical, and spiritual values central to Haudenosaunee identity.

The Wampum Belt remains one of the most important cultural symbols. Each belt is composed of shell beads and represents treaties, significant events, or philosophical teachings. The Two Row Wampum, for example, illustrates parallel coexistence between Native and European peoples—a principle often disregarded by colonial governments.

Iroquois Legends and Oral Stories

These traditional oral stories are Iroqouis Legends, which include  Cayuga Legends, Oneida Legends, Onondaga Legends, Seneca Legends, Mohawk Legends, and Tuscarora Legends.

Common Characters Found in Iroquois Legends

The Creator (Shongwayadihsonh, in Cayuga): The high god of Iroquois mythology, a benevolent teacher and caretaker of the world. In some traditions the Creator is referred to as Orenda or the Great Spirit. 

Sky Woman: (Lotsitsisonh or Atsi’tsiaka:ion in Mohawk) The Cayuga mother goddess, said to have fallen through a hole in the sky. 

The Twin Gods: Sky Holder and Flint (Right-Handed and Left-Handed Twins in Tuscarora )
The culture heroes of the Cayuga tribe. In most Iroquois legends, the Twins are grandsons of Sky Woman and their mother dies in childbirth; however, in Cayuga legends the twins are often said to be Sky Woman’s sons. 

Sky Holder, the Good Spirit twin (sometimes known as Sapling,Djuskaha in Seneca;  Maple Sapling or Okwiraseh or Tharuhyawa:ku in Mohawk; Right-Handed Twin, Good Spirit, Good Mind, or Ka’tikenhrakwahst in Tuscarora) was the benefactor of the Cayugas and according to some tellings, the creator of humankind. He slew monsters and created many things to help humankind. In some Onondaga communities Sky-Holder is considered the same entity as Sapling, while in others, they are considered to be distinct. 

His twin Flint, the Bad Spirit twin (Warty or Othagwenda in Seneca;  Flint or Tawiskaron in Mohawk;  Left-Handed Twin, Bad Spirit or Bad Mind, Ka’tikenhra:ksen in Tuscarora) created everything negative and dangerous in the world, and according to some tellings, was responsible for introducing death to the world. 

The Thunders (Hadiwennodagyes in Cayuga,Hadiwennoda:dye’s in Onondaga): Powerful storm spirits who live in the sky and cause thunder and lightning. Although they are dangerous beings and their gaze can bring death to mortal men, they usually play a positive role in Cayuga legends and are typically portrayed as honorable and fair. The thunder god Hine in Seneca and Tuscarora, or Hinon in Mohawk (also known as Hinen or Heynuh) is their eldest brother and leader, often called “Grandfather” by the Senecas. 

Onatah: Spirit of the Corn, a fertility goddess and one of the Three Sisters of agriculture. 

Stone-Throwers: (Jigahenh, in Cayuga, Yakonenyoya’ks in Mohawk; Enkwehsayen, in Tuscarora) Little people of Iroquoian folklore. They are dwarf-like nature spirits about 2 feet tall. 

Stonecoats: (Ganehwa:s in Cayuga; Atnayalho in Oneida; Otneyarhed in Onondaga; Atenenyarhu, in Mohawk; Thunenhyarhen in Tuscarora) Mythological giants of the Iroquois tribes, with skin as hard as stone. 

Flying Head: (Kanontsistóntie’s in Mohawk; Kunenhrayenhnenh, in Tuscarora) Monster in the form of a giant disembodied head, usually created during a particularly violent murder. The head comes back to seek revenge on the murderer and sometimes his children or neighbors.

Naked Bear: (Hnyagwai’go:wah, in Cayuga; Uya’kwaher, in Tuscarora): A giant, hairless bear monster. Some people associate them with mammoths. 

Onyare: A dragon-like horned serpent of the Great Lakes, feared for its habit of capsizing canoes and eating people. 

The Great Peacemaker (Hononhsoni:donh) and Hiawatha: The legendary founders of the Iroquois Confederacy and architects of the Great Law. 

Dry Fingers (O’nya:ten, in Cayuga): Disembodied mummified arm of Cayuga ghost stories.

Dry Hand: Disembodied mummified arm of Seneca ghost stories.

Drum Dancers (Tehotikal:luhe’, in Oneida): Little people of Iroquoian folklore. They are dwarf-like nature spirits about 2 feet tall. 

Stone Coats (Atnayalho, in Oneida): Mythological giants of the Iroquois tribes, with skin as hard as stone. 

The Great Peacemaker and Hiawatha: The legendary founders of the Iroquois Confederacy and architects of the Great Law.

Godasiyo: Legendary female chief of the Seneca and Tuscarora tribes.

Hoop Snake (Ti’karenweh, in Tuscarora): Mythological water spirit the size and shape of an ordinary snake, but with immense strength. In Tuscarora stories, Hoop Snakes lived underwater and were feared for their ability to catch humans and drag them underwater to drown.  

Iroquois Legends:

  • Cayuga Legends
    • The Story of the False Faces
    • The Story of the Great Turtle
    • The Story of the Three Sisters
    • The Story of the Tree of Peace
  • Oneida Legends
    • The Story of Hiawatha
    • The Story of the Deganawida
    • The Story of the Great Law of Peace
    • The Story of the Founding of the Iroquois Confederacy
    • The Story of the White Dog Sacrifice
  • Onondaga Legends
    • The Story of Tadodaho
    • The Story of the Stone Giants
    • The Story of the Great Serpent
    • The Story of the False Faces
    • The Story of the Medicine Lodge
  • Seneca Legends
    • The Story of Cornplanter
    • The Story of Red Jacket
    • The Story of Handsome Lake
    • The Story of the Ghost Dance
    • The Story of the Longhouse Religion
  • Mohawk Legends
    • The Story of Joseph Brant
    • The Story of Thayendanegea
    • The Story of the Battle of Oriskany
    • The Story of the Trail of Tears
    • The Story of the Mohawk Nation
  • Tuscarora Legends
    • The Story of the Tuscarora War
    • The Story of the Flight of the Tuscarora
    • The Story of the Founding of the Tuscarora Nation
    • The Story of the Tuscarora Language
    • The Story of the Tuscarora Culture

Sources and Further Reading

Skä•noñh – Great Law of Peace Center (Focuses on the Onondaga Nation and Iroquois political structure) https://www.skanonhcenter.org
Onondaga Nation – Official Government Website https://www.onondaganation.org
Native Languages of the Americas – Iroquois Facts http://www.native-languages.org/iroquois.htm

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