The official home page for the Choctaws of Oklahoma is at http://www.choctawnation.com.

The official website for the Mississippi Band of Choctaws is at www.choctaw.org.

Information on the Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Ebarb (Louisiana) can be found at www.toledo-bend.com.

The official website for the state recognized Biloxi-Chitimacha-Choctaw tribe of Louisiana is at www,boloxi-chitimacha.com.

The Choctaw language is most closely related to Chickasaw, the two belonging to the Muskogean family. The name Oklahoma means "red people" in Choctaw. A Chahta Anumpa (Choctaw) Internet language course can be found at www.choctawonline.com. Scroll to the bottom of the page for links to different levels of classes.

A history of Choctaw tribal lands can be found at www.mshistory.k12.ms.us.

Geronimo was an Apache chief. Legend has it that he was being pursued and became trapped. His only escape was to jump off a cliff into a river below. On horseback, he took this route. As he went off the edge of the cliff, he yelled his name, "Geronimo."

The presentation of flags at a pow wow Grand Entry mean the same as they do at any anglo gathering, like a rodeo or sporting event, for example. They represent the country or tribe associated with their features and are a sign of honor to that country or nation.

Flags representing an Indian nation are unique to that nation just like the American or Canadian flag is unique to the country it represents, because all tribes are sovereign nations. Each symbol on the flag has a specific meaning unique to that tribe, just as the stars and strips on the American flag represent specific things to Americans or the maple leaf represents something to Canadians. There are more than 600 recognized Indian tribes, and most have their own flag with it's own symbolism.

All the flag bearers in a Grand Entry are veterans of some war, and they represent all fallen warriors. Being asked to carry a flag is considered an honor.

Yes, a storyteller figure is usually represented by one large figure surrounded by several smaller figures, representing the storyteller and the children listening to the stories. As art forms, they are most often found as dolls or ceramic or clay pottery depicting humans, but are also used in jewelry items, and sometimes are depicted as animals.

Related Link: Penfield Gallery of Indian Arts This art gallery specializes in storytellers and masks. It has several examples of modern art depicting storytellers. The figure at the top of the page is typical of the form, and if you scroll down the page there are a bunch of links to other interpretations by well known, respected, contemporary artists.

Algonquin (or Algonkin) is often used in reference to a tribe. However, Algonquin is not a tribe, it is a language group.

The confusion lies in that the term is loosely used interchangeably to describe the tribal groups who speak dialects in that language group. The word "Algonquin" means "At the place of spearing fishes and eels," and is also used in reference to a geographical area, which lies in the uppper north eastern corner of the United States and across the border into Canada.

For more in depth information on this topic, check out these articles on our site: Algonquian is a language group, not a tribe of Indians
General cultural beliefs of Algonquin speaking tribes
Who were the Algonquin and who are they now ?

Map of Algonquin Territory:


Link of the Week:
Native American Languages
This is a resource site with links to dozens of native american languages, online language materials, language publications and language lessons.

Lakota is the English spelling and Lakhota is the spelling preferred by speakers of the language.

The Dakotan dialects contrast aspirated and unaspirated stops (ph vs. p, th vs. t, ch vs c, kh vs. k), whereas English does not, and these sounds are usually hard to pronounce for people who speak English as their first language, so are often ignored.

For speakers of Lakhota, the spelling Lakhota reflects the fact that the k in Lakhota is aspirated. Lakota is the preferred English spelling. Some systems of Lakhota spelling that do not mark aspiration also write Lakota.

Link of the Week:
Sketch of Lakhota
This is a detailed overview of the Lakota or Lakhota language.

At the rest area on Alternate Route 50 (4 miles north of Ely), there is a historical marker which reads:
"JEDEDIAH STRONG SMITH (Explorer of the Western Wilderness) Historical Marker

In May-June, 1827, Jedediah Smith attempted to find a route from California's central valley to the Great Salt Lake Valley in Utah, and he became the first European to completely cross what is now Nevada.

Because Smith's journal and map have never been found, his exact route is unknown. Based on Smith's own statements about his difficult trip, modern Nevada historians and geographers have pieced together the most plausible route.

Smith crossed the Sierra Nevada at Ebbetts Pass, swung southeast along or across the headwaters and the middle reaches of Walker River, and passed into central Nevada's trackless waste south of Walker Lake.

He entered Big Smoky Valley on its southwest side in June, 1827, and crossed the valley in a northeasterly direction. He then paralleled the future Simpson Survey, route of the Pony Express and Overland Stage, along modern U.S. Highway 50" (which runs through Ely).

For the second part of your question, see the
Link of the Week:
Western Shoshoni Indians in Nevada - A brief summary of the Western Shoshone tribe beginning from 11,000 years ago.

Editor's Note: I found the answers to this question in about two minutes using the techniques described in How to get better results when you search a search engine

The seals, whales and walruses that are the staples of the Inuit diet have become deposits for the world's 12 most toxic chemicals, persistent organic pollutants that collect in the animals' fat and are passed on to the Inuit as they eat, or through breast milk.

"We have few alternatives to the food we hunt, as it is the same food through which we identify ourselves, binding us as family and community," said Sheila Watt-Cloutier, president of Canada's branch of the Inuit Circumpolar Conference, which defends the rights of Inuit in Arctic countries. "We are the land and the land is us. When our land and animals are poisoned, so are we."

Oil drilling is disrupting the migration of the caribou herds and changing tradtional birthing grounds, which is dwindling the caribou herds, which the Inuits rely on as a primary summer food source.

Global warming has caused flooding of some Inuit communities that were ancestral land for thousands of years that had to be evacuated in recent times. The melting water has also caused an increase in insects (mosquitoes), which has adversely affected the health of caribou herds.

Other search terms to persue: Nunavut, Arctic Bay, Broughton Island, Cambridge Bay, Nunatsiavut, Baffin Region, District of Keewatin, Chesterfield Inlet, Baker Lake, Rankin Inlet, Whale Cove, Arviat, Gwich'in
Links of the Week:
Nunavut Government Organizations - You can find a long link list of Nunavut Government organizations online .

On our sites:
Clothing, footwear and territory of the Caribou Inuit and Sarah James leads Alaska's 'Caribou People' in defense of their way of life

--Submitted by Darla. Answer: I am so sorry for your friend, but I am neither Lakota nor a medicine person. I do know that true medicine people do not give out that sort of information to strangers so you probably won't learn the information you seek by just asking someone on the Internet. If someone does tell you of a ceremony, I would be wary. Ceremonies concerning the dead (or anything else, for that matter) are complex and require strict adherance to a particular set of rituals, and if a step is left out or done in the wrong order, or if bits of other ceremonies are added to the mix, it can possibly cause harm instead of good.

My suggestion would be to go to a reservation in your area and ask around for names of Elders, then ask them about who is a respected medicine person in the area of your problem, and when you find out who that is, ask them to perform the ceremony for you. Real medicine people don't refer to themselves as medicine men or shamans,(shaman isn't even a native american term) but other people will refer to them that way. If several people mention the same name, that person is likely to be a real medicine person. Check out their spiritual background and training carefully, before asking someone to perform a ceremony for you. Attending one spiritual ceremony and then trying to repeat it does not make a medicine man. Real medicine people study for years to learn all the nuances and traditions for the medicine ceremonies they practice. Not all medicine people practice all ceremonies. Just as white doctors do, most medicine people specialize in a narrow area of expertise.

You probably won't find a real medicine man offering their services on the Internet. A real medicine person will not ask for compensation or set a price to perform a ceremony or suggest a donation, but it is customary to pay their expenses to travel to the person in need of the ceremony, and offer a gift afterwards. These days money is an acceptable gift, let your heart set the amount. Be leery of self-proclaimed medicine men and those who ask for a fee up front.

Good luck in your search, I will say a prayer for your friend.

LINKS OF THE WEEK:

Seeking Native American Spirituality: Read This First!
Fake Medicine Men
The Plastic Medicine People Circle
Beware False Medicine Men

As is the case with the names most Indian tribes called themselves, "Washoe" means simply "the People," and was also used to describe the area they lived in. If you stop to think about it, this isn't too strange. After all, the term "Americans" simply means "people who live in a region called America."

Often, when the white man came, he either created a name from a mispronounciation of the native name of a tribe, or frequently adopted another name used by a neighboring tribe (who spoke another language) to describe the tribe in question. Many times, the invaders weren't sure if a newly encountered tribe was hostile or not, so they often asked a neighboring tribe they were already friendly with rather than asking the tribal members in question.

For example, the Lakota were known as "khota" (which meant "friends" or "allies") to neighboring tribes they were on good terms with, and the la, da, and na prefixes specified regions of residence of particular bands, so the generally accepted meaning of Lakota became just "friend" or "allie." However, to the Lakota people "Lakota" simply meant "the people" and the "la" prefix referred to their place of residence on the plains."

But the French asked one of their enemies, the Chipewa (Ojibwa) what they were called and they said "Nadowe siu" which meant "little snake" in the Chipewa language (which was their symbol for enemy and meant to be a derogatory term) . The french shortened this unpronouncable word to Sioux (giving it a French spelling in the process) which is actually the "little" portion of the Chipewa phrase, and passed this name along to English speaking people and eventually it was officially adopted by the US government to refer to this tribe of Indians.

Because of language barriers, explanations were often accompanied by sign language. Frequently the signs were misinterpreted, resulting in a totally new name for a tribe. For example, when the Crow tribe were asked, they said they were the Big Bird People, in reference to the eagle which held spiritual power for them and is an integral part of their religion. Because there had been a recent buffalo hunt near the camp, there were a lot of crows in the area scavenging, and the white men thought that was the big bird they were referring to, so that tribe became known as the Crow Indians.

In the case of the Washoe Indians, the first white men asked the Washoe themselves what they were called, and they said Washoe (which means "the people" in their language) and it wasn't too hard to pronounce or spell, so that tribe retained it's original name.

--Question Submitted by Kathy W.

LINKS OF THE WEEK:
The Meaning of American Indian Tribal Names
2 Great Native American Indian Names eBooks, Over 2500 Names and Their English Meanings
Native American Names: What should we call them?
Native American Sign Language (Scroll down for symbols)
American Indian Language Resources

Full Question: I am a relative of the late Chief Washita, of the Shoshone tribe. He had a daughter who married Jim Bridger, Her indian name is Little Fawn and they had a daughter named Mary Elizabeth, that is my great great great great grandmother.

I have the history on Jim Bridger, but I want to know the history on Chief Washita and his family and where I really come from. I am Shoshone Indian, and I live in Oklahoma. Any help is greatly appericated in trying to trace my indian roots.

Any information on the shoshone tribe? I am not sure where we come from. I have been told it was the Duck Bill Reservation in Wyoming, or the Wind River Reservation, so I am not sure. Any help or information is greatly appericated,

--Submitted by lace_431961

Answer:

I believe you are mistaken about the name Washita, and may actually be referring to a Shoshone chief named Whoshakik, who eventually became known as Chief Washakie.

Washita is the name of a river and geographical region in Oklahoma where the great Sand Creek Massacre of Chief Black Kettle's people was followed four years later with another massacre along the Washita River on November 22, 1868. At this Battle of the Washita River, Black Kettle and his wife were gunned down while approching Custer's command carrying a white flag.

Jim Bridger had seven children and three Indian wives. His first wife was the daughter of Insala, Chief of the Flathead Nation (usually referred to as the Little Chief). They married about 1834. Their daughter Mary Ann was born in 1835 and was sent to school at the Whitman Mission at the age of six, and was captured by Indians during that massacre on November 29, 1847 when she was 11. She died a few months after being rescued. This wife died giving birth to a second girl, Josephine, during the winter of 1845-46. They also had a boy named Felix who was born about 1841.

Chief Washakie

About 1848, Bridger married a Ute woman who also died on July 4th, 1849 at the birth of a baby girl named Virginia Rosalie.

Chief Washakie's daughter, Mary (also known as Little Fawn Lightfoot, possibly also known as Mary Ann Zane or Maryann Zane) then became caretaker for his children and Jim Bridger eventually took her as his third and last wife in 1850. John Little Fawn Bridger was born about 1855 at Ft. Bridger and was christened and possibly baptised by Father DeSmet. They also had a daughter named Mary Ann "Elizabeth" Bridger, who was born on June 27, 1856. Little Fawn had another son known as Leander Ethan Zane (the birth that killed her?).

Mary Bridger died in 1858, after giving birth to a son, when she would have been in her mid-twenties. After her death, the children were left with a family in Little Santa Fe, Missouri (the Zanes?).

A Hollice P. Clark married a Mary Elizabeth Bridger in Alamo, Crockett Co, TN in 1882, and they had four children Benjamin (1883), William C. (1885), Joseph O. (1887), and Hiram (1888). I don't know if this Mary Elizabeth was the daughter of Jim Bridger, the famous mountain man.

The Eastern Shoshoni, numbering about 2,000 under their famous Chief Washakie, occupied the region from the Wind River Mountains to Fort Bridger and astride the Oregon Trail. Most of their descendants today live on the Wind River Reservation.

UPDATE: from Alma King
This is in response to your answer about a question on Chief Washakie, which led to a discussion on the mountain man Jim Bridger. You wondered if Mary Ellizabeth Bridger, who married a Hollice P. Clark in Crockett County, TN, might be Jim Bridger's daughter. This Mary Elizabeth Bridger was not Jim's daughter. She was the daughter of Benjamin C. and Cinthia Tyler Bridger. Her husband's name was not Hollice, but Hiram P. Clark. She was born, raised and died in what is now Crockett County, Tn, and would have been my Great, Great, Great Aunt. Early genealogical research had her husband's name as Hollice, but was found to be wrong.) So far, no direct tie in with Jim Bridger has been made to this particular family. unfortunately.

UPDATE from Julia A. Byrd
Mary Elizabeth Bridger was the daughter of Little Fawn, (daughter of Chief Washakie), and Jim Bridger. Mary Elizabeth married Abraham Carroll and had numerous children including my grandmother Bonnie Anna Carroll. I know because my grandmother and mom told me these stories when I was a child in Oklahoma.

I think the person that asked the question is related to me. I think it's one of the Zane kids, Jim Zane is probably her grandfather, he was the son of Neillie Carroll, my grandmother's sister. I am the great great grand daughter of Jim Bridger and Little Fawn, daughter of Chief Washakie. Here is the family tree:
Jim Bridger married Little Fawn
Daughter Mary Elizabeth Briger married Abraham Carroll, they had the following children:
Anna who was murdered in Baxter Springs, Kansas, Emma who died as a child, Nell, Tom, Clara, and Bonnie Anna, my grandmother.

Bonnie Anna had my mom Billie Thelma Duncan and she had three children, me, Julia Ann, Patricia and Bonnie Sue named after my grandmother.

The reservation is the Wind River in Wyoming. I remember all the stories that my mom and grandma told me as we sat at our camp site at the Quapaw Indian Pow wow. I think the person who had the question was one of the Zane kids, grandchildren of Jim and Isabel. I remember them well. They lived in Baxter Springs Kansas.

Related Articles on our website:
Shoshoni Indians (Northwestern Bands)
Bear River Massacre
Eastern Shoshone Tribe Overview
Shoshone-Paiute Tribes of the Duck Valley Reservation
Chief Washakie

LINKS OF THE WEEK:
Washita: Genocide on the Great Plains
Bridger Family Genealogy Forum
Wind River Indian Reservation
Chief Black Kettle, 1813-1868

[ Back to Top ]

Question:
Please, I have a question. I'm living in Spain, and my english isn't good. Today do there exist some reserve with native indians in America?

--Submitted by Eva X.J. from Spain

Answer:

Question:
Do you know where I could get information about the Wincot tribe that supposedly lived in the Grand Rapids, MI area 1,000 years or so ago? I was told by an archeologist they existed.

--Submitted by Faye W.

Answer:

Question:
Why are the Lytton Indians named as such? I am a Lytton and I am curious why these Indians were named after a very British surname.

--Submitted by James L.

Answer:

Question:
What does the hummingbird represent to native american people?
--Submitted by Clara D.

Answer:

I have been asked to make a costume for a young student who will be portraying Chief Washakie at her elementary school. I would like the costume to be as authentic as possible. Can you help me find appropriate representations?
--Submitted by Miki P.

Answer:

As close as I have come to knowing a base language comes from the "AthaPaskan" region. I am "Wailaki" and i know other tibes share the same variety of language ie: Nongatl,Lassik,Sinkyone,and Kato.If anyone has any information to help me in my quest I encourage your response. @ spoxlogic@myway.com .Thankyou and may our search alawys be for our people.
--Submitted by Jack



Answer:

I plan to hunt pheasants in South Dakota the 2nd week of Nov. I am interested in the hunting opportunities that may be available on the Crow Creek Reservation. Please send me any info you may have. Also, I plan a scouting trip the 1st of August and wonder if it is possible to visit the reservation to see the hunting possibilities first hand.
--Submitted by Charles C.

Answer:

Question:
Would you know the meaning of the words Wha-she-sho-wee-ko? A Lakota Souix I know said it meant crazy white man. But someone else said complete idiot. I'm beginning to think the latter. But I was watching the series Into the West and saw the subtitles and everytime they used the word wahsee, white was the subtitle. Which is it?
--Submitted by Charles B.

Answer:

Question:
I was told in order to prove that I am Seminole, I have to take a blood test that has something to do with blood quantum but that test is so expensive. Do you have any suggestions?
--Submitted by Halfbreed

Answer:

While a DNA test would indicate you do or do not have some degree of native american genetics, there is no way for a DNA test to prove you decended from a particular Indian tribe and would not be the proof you need to meet enrollment requirements in either Seminole tribe, or any other north american native american tribe.

The requirements for enrollment in the more than 600 tribes in the US and hundreds more in Canada are unique to each tribal constitution and bylaws. Usually, you must prove lineal decendency from an ancestor listed on a specific government or tribal roll from the late 1800s or early 1900s to be eligible for membership. These rolls were usually taken when the tribe in question was moved to a particular reservation or reserve, or at the time their tribal constitution was drawn up. At that time, many Indians hid to avoid being moved to reservations, or refused to sign the rolls because they feared discrimination, or were married to non-indians and living in their spouse's culture and their decendents are therefore, not officially recognized as tribal members today.

Proof of lineage would come in the form of genelogical research, and sometimes, the testimony of living relatives who are already enrolled members of the tribe you are trying to enroll in. You would need to gather original or certified copies of the pertinent birth certificates, death certificates,and marriage certificates that trace your trail of direct decendancy from an ancestor named on the pertinent roll. But, just proving you decended from an Indian who was a member of that tribe is usually not enough.

Because of inter-marriages with non-indians, the degree of Indian blood has been mixed with other races in many decendents. The percentages of remaining Indian blood are often referred to as blood quantum. After many generations, the percentage of Indian blood may be so low as to make the person's appearance and culture be indistinguishable from other races, such as caucasians. For this reason, most tribes have set a limit on the degree of Indian blood they will accept for enrollment in their tribe.

For example, if one of your parents was a full-blood Indian and the other another race, your blood quantum would be 1/2 Indian. If one grandparent was full-blood Indian, your blood quantum would be 1/4th, assuming the other grandparent was non-Indian and your parent from this line married a non-indian. If a great grandparent was the last full-blood Indian in your line, your blood quantum would be 1/8. After five generations it would be 1/32, after seven generations, 1/128th, at ten generations it would be only 1/1,024th. Seven generations would probably take you back to the mid 1600s or even earlier if your ancestors lived to be over 50.

Some people have more than one full-blood Indian in their direct lineage, which may have been from different tribes. Most tribes have a provision in their constitution addressing this issue, and most will not accept you for enrollment if you are already an enrolled member in another tribe. When considering blood quantum for one tribe, the percentage of indian blood in your line from another tribe is not included in your blood quantum for the first tribe.

For example, if your great-great grandmother was full-blood Seminole and your father was full-blood Lakota and all other relatives in your line were white, your blood quantum would be 1/2 Lakota, 1/16 Seminole and 7/16 white. This would make you un-eligible for enrollment in either Seminole tribe, but you would meet the blood quantum requirements for enrollment in the Lakota tribe. But, as another example, if your father was only 1/8 Lakota in the first example, then your blood quantum would be 1/16 Lakota, 1/16 Seminole and 7/8 white, so then you wouldn't qualify for enrollment in either Indian tribe even though your total Indian blood quantum would be 1/8th.

Many Indians living today don't meet the blood quantum requirements to be a member of their tribe. Even many full-bloods are descended from too many tribes to have enough "blood quantum percentage" of any one tribe to meet the enrollment requirements of any one tribe. All recognized tribes have a blood quantum restriction, family registration restriction, or both.

The Seminole tribe is further complicated, because they had runaway slaves of African decent in their population, whom the Seminoles claimed as slaves so they would be eligible to go to the reservation with other members of the village. In actuality, these people of African decent were treated as equals and considered part of the tribe by the Seminoles. They were officially freed when the Seminole tribes went onto reservations. This segment of the Seminole tribe became known as the Freedmen.

Most tribes did not give tribal enrollment to their former slaves, but the Seminole did, because they didn't really consider these people to be slaves, but only said they were to meet government requirements so they wouldn't have to split up. So some of the originally recognized Seminole population had no Indian blood at all.

Seminole membership rolls include descendants of these Freedmen, but they are not given the same services as tribal members with Seminole blood. Currently the Freedmen have the right to vote in tribal elections.

The Freedmen with the Seminole were the only former slaves of the Five Civilized Tribes to be recognized as tribal members. All five tribes had Freedmen, but all the others had it in their constitutions and ordinance that they would not accept them as enrolled tribal members.

Photo courtesy of the Seminole Tribe of Florida Famous Seminole leader Osceola

The Five Civilized Tribes: the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole were forced from their original homelands in the southeastern United States, and relocated to Indian Territory in the 1800's. By treaty, these new lands in Indian Territory were to be the permanent homes of these tribes. However, the government then forced the dissolution of these Tribal Governments and Nations, and the State of Oklahoma was created in 1907.

Because so many people had suffered and died during the forced relocations 60 years earlier, many families refused to co-operate with the government orders to sign their rolls, fearing another round-up by soldiers and a final death march. This was not an unreasonable fear, as the Wounded Knee Massacre had occured in 1890, only a few short years earlier.

Many people simply resisted any attempt by the government to control their lives. Others who tried to register were refused, because they had lived outside the Nations at one time, and did not meet the government's strict residency requirements. Many more had gone their own way during the relocation period, settling in the surrounding states of Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, and Texas.

Sam Houston, who was adopted by a Cherokee family and had a Cherokee wife, had offered sanctuary in Texas to many Indians during this period. Only those Indians whose direct ancestors were permanent residents of their Nations in Indian Territory, AND who also signed these final rolls, are eligible for tribal membership in the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma today.

In 2000, the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma changed their enrollment requirements to require a one-eighth quantum of Seminole blood as a part of enrollment requirements. Prior to this time, open enrollment requirements did not specify blood quantum as a part of the process. Call the Enrollment Department at (405) 257-6267 to inquire about more specific enrollment information and for applications.

.As the name says, the Seminole Tribe of Florida is from the state of Florida, and did not relocate to the reservation in Oklahoma. Instead, this tribe hid in their original territory in the swamps of Florida to avoid relocation. Their enrollment requirements are: 1) You must prove lineal descendancy from someone listed on the 1957 Tribal Roll, 2) A blood quantum with a minimum of one-quarter Florida Seminole blood, and 3) You must be sponsored by a currently enrolled tribal member.

The Seminole Indians were once part of the Creek tribe. The

--Submitted by Indianz.com.

Tribal nations across the United States are sending their support to the victims of Hurricane Katrina as federal officials pledged to help tribes affected by a disaster that battered the Gulf Coast.

The National Congress of American Indians has set up a relief fund to assist tribes and their members in Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi. Six federally recognized tribes are located in the three states, which were hit by wind, rain and flooding.

"Our thoughts and prayers are with the people of the Indian Nations located in the region effected by Hurricane Katrina," said NCAI President Tex G. Hall. "It is times like this when it is important for Native people to come together to help one another out."

NCAI staff said it has reached some, but not all, of the tribes affected by Katrina. Reports so far have indicated that the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians suffered the most damage.

The Mississippi Choctaw Reservation was hit by Katrina as it was downgraded to a tropical depression. Several tribal communities have suffered "extensive" physical damage, the Bureau of Indian Affairs said. Telephone service and power have been lost in some areas.

"The BIA is committed to helping these communities get back on their feet," said associate deputy secretary Jim Cason. "We will continue to do all we can to meet that goal."

With NCAI coordinating financial assistance and the BIA addressing public safety, emergency access and emergency service, Indian Country is helping out in other ways. The Seminole Tribe of Florida sent emergency crews to the Mississippi Choctaw Reservation earlier this week, Indian Country Today reported.

Support is coming from as far away as Oregon. The Klamath Tribes are sending their primary physician, Dr. Curtis Hanst, and their pharmacist, Dr. Matt Baker, to New Orleans, the city that has endured some of the worst damage. Hanst and Baker are due to leave Klamath Falls either today or tomorrow.

"This is a devastating and traumatic event in that region and the Klamath Tribes are honored to be able to assist," said Allison Henrie, the administrative officer for the tribe's health and family services department.

New Orleans is currently in a state of chaos as tens of thousands of refugees remain stranded in a city deluged by flood waters. After losing their homes and property to the storm, people are now running out of flood, clothing and drinkable water. The death toll could be in the thousands.

The picture isn't as grim for tribal communities but some problems have been reported. Members of the Tunica-Biloxi Tribe of Louisiana who live in Slidell have lost homes although the storm didn't claim any lives, NCAI said yesterday.

The tribe, meanwhile, is housing nearly 600 refugees at its convention center. Some are residents of New Orleans who may not be able to return home for several more months, if at all.

In Alabama, the Poarch Band of Creek Indians suffered only minor damage. But April Sells, the tribe's management director, said members of Southeastern tribes who live in the region have been hit hard.

"We're setting up a shelter for our members who are coming back to the reservation because they now have no home and no place to go," Sells said. The Poarch Creeks are also sending clothing, food and water to the Chitimacha Tribe in Louisiana, Sells said.

The Chitimacha Tribe has already taken in 400 tribal members who lived in New Orleans, the BIA said. Other communities affected are the Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana and the Jena Band of Choctaw Indians.

To donate to the NCAI Hurricane Relief Fund, send donations to:

Submitted by Elizabeth J.

Answer:

Full Question:
I am in my first year of college and I am currently trying to formulate a paper on the lack of support from the American government to the Native American community. I would like to know what kind of benefits they offer people living on a reservation, and/or how often tribes get financial support from the government in order to make up for the lack of natural resources on the tribe's "given" land. I would really appreciate it if you got back to me A.S.A.P. I need to start my page.
--Submitted by Kayla B.
Answer:
To begin with, this is a very broad subject, which has different answers depending on which specific tribe you are researching.

American Indians are not just one big community. They make up nearly 800 separate tribes, each with their own tribal governments and treaties with the US Government. Not all tribes have a reservation or land base. The size of reservations vary from a couple city blocks to millions of acres. Some reservations are shared by more than one tribe of Indians.

Membership in individual tribes varies from less than a dozen people to over 300,000 people. It would probably require months, if not years, of in depth research to fully answer your question for all indian tribes in the USA today. The information provided here is just a very general, broad overview of the subject.

The answer depends on the tribe and it's treaties and to what degree the US Govt honors the terms of their particular treaties, not neccesarily the reservation they live on, if they live on a reservation at all. So far, the US Government has yet to live up to all the terms of any treaty made with an Indian tribe.

Although individual reservation social programs probably receive some funding from the US Government's annual budget, it's usually far from adequate for their needs. They also can apply for and may receive federal and private grants for various things, which are not neccesarily (and probably aren't) related to treaty rights. These are grants that any organization or individual can apply for, regardless of race. Many of the services on reservations are provided for with this sort of funding that has nothing to do with what the Federal Government disperses as part of treaty obligations.

44% of all Indians do not live on their reservation

Indian Education

Indian Health Care

How payments to individual Indians work

Indian Housing

Indian Food and Welfare Programs

Non Federally Recognized Indian Tribes

The last 100 years

FULL QUESTION
My guess is that you receive dozens upon dozens of emails from people searching for cure alls...I'm 37 and have found a point in my life where I have found that modern technology, medicine and Spirituality just don't fit my needs. My goal, although rather simple is proving difficult. I'm hoping to find a tribe of Midewiwin / Ojibwa, more so an Elder or Spirital Healer to learn more from. Although modern world "rules" tend to look the other way, I want to look into the eyes of those who have kept the ways of old alive. All I'm looking for is a contact name and location.

I'll travel wherever and whenever to have the opportunity to "take a step back" to go forward. Some things are no longer produced such as our dear natural resources that mother earth provides us. I don't see new earth being created yet I see construction (which leads to destruction) everywhere.

My goal is to learn more of Spirituality and Native American medicine. Not to profit, but to expand my knowlegde and share with my family. My beliefs would never allow me to abuse anything gained from such an encounter. I'm not the person looking to profit monetarily. Items of intrinsic value do not appeal to me. Learning and expanding my mind does. I sincerely hope you may be able to assist me in locatiing what I am looking for...please don't simply delete this email. I promise you my desire is sincere.
--Submitted by Dan B.


Answer:

FULL QUESTION:
I'm doing research on American Indian tribes. Could you tell me which if any of the following tribes are extinct:

"Abenaki" - spelled variously as: Abenaqui, Abnaki, Alnanbal, Benaki, Oubenaki, Wabanaki, Wippanap; Montagnais (Algonquin); Anagonges (Iroquois); Aquannaque (Huron); Bashaba; Gannongagehronnon (Mohawk); Moassones; Maweshenook; Narankamigdok; Natsagana (Caughnawaga); Obunego; Onagunga; Onnogonges; Opanango; Owenagunges; Owenunga; and Skacewanilom (Iroquois)

Also, are the Abnaki, also known as Abenaki, considered an official native American tribe by the United States government?
--Submitted by Randy K.

Answer:

Native american indian jewelry is so beautiful. How long have indian tribes been making jewelry? What are the meanings of turquoise and the squash blossom necklace? How can I tell what tribe a piece of sterling silver jewelry is from?
--Submitted by Ardith R.


Answer:

Native american indian jewelry is generally divided into three categories: metalwork, beadwork, and quillwork. Jewelry styles were different in every American Indian tribe, but the differences were less marked than with other arts and crafts, because jewelry and the materials used for making it (beads, shells, drilled and shaped bones, coral, copper and silver, ivory, amber, turquoise and other natural stones) were major trade items long before European arrival in America.

Indian Beadwork Jewelry

Many different tribes are famous for their intricate beadwork, but this craft is primarily associated with the northern, central and southern Plains Indians. While beadwork is used in jewelry items such as earrings and beaded medallion necklaces, it is more often used to decorate bags, horse gear, moccasins, and items of clothing.

Usually certain designs and predominant bead colors are associated with different tribes. For example, the Cree, Ojibwa, and Shoshone are famous for their intricate flower designs usually done on a white background with red or pink flowers (most often a rose) and sometimes intricate curling stems in green.

The Arapaho, Blackfoot, Crow, Assiniboin, Gros Ventre and Yanktonia Dakota tribes are known for geometric patterns. They most commonly executed checkerboard motifs in squares and triangles with fully beaded backgrounds in yellow, light blue, red and sometimes white. The Blackfoot were the leaders of this style, and usually preferred a yellow background.

The central Plains styles produced by the Teton and Yanktonia Dakota (Sioux), the Cheyenne and Arapaho consisted of large areas covered with backgrounds in white or blue beads and figures in blue, green, red, yellow and white.

Around 1885, subjects chosen from life became popular beading themes for men's jackets, vests and pipe bags. Male figures in war bonnets, horses and the American flag were most often portrayed. Outside influences account for designs which were beaded to order for non-Indian patrons.

Indian Porcupine Quillwork Jewelry

When trade beads became widely available, the centuries old art of porcupine quillwork became less popular, and has nearly been lost, but there are a few young contemporary artists who are reviving this art. Quillwork is mainly associated with Plains Indian tribes, and is used on the same items as beadwork.

Prehistoric Jewelry

Archeological evidence shows that shells and stones were used for adornment as early as 5500 B.C.

Turquoise found in Hohokam excavations in southern Arizona dates back to 200 B.C. Turquoise from central Mexico dates back to about 600–700 B.C.; from South America, ca. 900 B.C. Other beads have been found in even earlier periods.

Prehistoric Indians mined turquoise and turned it into jewelry — primarily drilled beads and other hanging ornaments. However, archeological findings include appliqué on shell and other rock, which means that turquoise was probably used with wood for ear decoration as well. Turquoise has been dominant in archeological jewelry finds; for example, several thousand pieces were found in Chaco Canyon. However, it is not the only important jewelry find.

The spiny oyster shell, Spondylus princeps, originates in only one area of the Western Hemisphere — off the coast of Baja California. This shell has been found in abundance in archeological excavations of the Anasazi, Mogollon, and Hohokam of the desert Southwest. It has also been found in the same eastern mound excavations where turquoise was found.

In North America, turquoise is only found as a mineral deposit in a few areas: a limited region of the Southwestern U.S., a small amount in Mexico, and there are some deposits in western South America. In the US, extensive evidence of prehistoric mining operations has been found in several areas: the Cerillos and Burro Mountain regions of New Mexico, the Kingman and Morenci regions of Arizona, and the Conejos area of Colorado. Turquoise jewelry found in southern Mexico and in excavated mounds east of the Mississippi has been identified as originating from New Mexico’s Cerillos mining area.

These finds not only prove prehistoric man’s early interest in, and use of jewelry, but it reveals important economic information showing the existence of long distance trading and that these items were valuable enough to carry over long distances.

The Beginning of the Jewelry Silversmith Era

One might argue that this historical context has little to do with the development of Indian jewelry as we know it. However, the Hopi and Pueblo cultures of the Rio Grande are descendants of the Anasazi and, many believe, from the Mogollon and Mimbres. So it seems to be a valid beginning of a historic tracing. The Navajo, on the other hand, entered the area fairly recently. Some say as early as the 14th century; others, as late as the early 16th. The Navajo, whenever they arrived, were undoubtedly influenced by the existing Pueblo cultures and later by the early Spanish.

It was actually the Navajo who were instrumental in spreading the art of silversmithing to other Southwest tribes. Prior to European contact, north american tribes used silver to make beads, but did not make elaborate jewelry from this metal.

The Navajo were in constant contact with the Spanish as they populated the Southwest from the late 16th century on. From these people, the Indians developed a great appreciation for personal adornment. Some of the early Spanish designs such as the Moorish inspired crescent and the pomegranate blossom became key to Navajo jewelry design.

The Navajo wore ornaments they obtained from those they conquered and from their trading partners. These ornaments were made from German silver (a copper-nickel-zinc substance that is bright and wears well, but contains no actual silver), copper, brass and to a much lesser extent, silver.

Wearing a cross or the crescent-shaped naja on a rawhide necklace was likely an ornament of beauty and pride to the native american indian, who valued it as a jewelry item and symbol of their wealth, not as a reflection of their appreciation for Christianity or for the Moorish influence on the Spanish. If one person had such an ornament, others were likely to want one, or if possible, something even better. Thus the pendant cross evolved, as did the naja, into a multitude of variations and blends. The simple thong on which they were once displayed gave way to stone, shell, silver, or other metal beads over time.

Atsidi Sani (“Old Smith”) was the first Navajo silversmith. He learned the blacksmith trade in the early 1850s and possibly even dabbled in silver in the early 1860s. The Navajo were captured by the U.S. Cavalry in 1864, and Atsidi Sani and about 8,000 other Navajo, were sent to Fort Sumner in eastern New Mexico. Later, in 1868, they were returned to the Four Corners area, to the land called the Dinetah. Although many (including Chee Dodge, the great Navajo leader of that era) accept 1868 as the year Atsidi Sani learned silver making, some evidence suggests that this is not wholly correct. Major Henry Wallen, the Commandant of Fort Sumner in 1864, made the comment, “Some of them are quite clever as silversmiths.” Of course he may have mistaken German silver for real silver. In any event, Atsidi Sani wears the mantle as the first Navajo silversmith.

The early Navajo silver work concentrated on concha (concho) belts, bracelets, bow guards, tobacco flasks and necklaces. Rings, earrings, pins, hair ornaments, buckles and bolos evolved from these. A full line of silver jewelry existed throughout the reservation by the 1880s.

The earliest Navajo work consisted of hammered work with file decoration. Turquoise, a very popular and much respected stone by the Navajo, appeared in silver jewelry around 1880. Turquoise as a jewelry item had been used for centuries, but prior to this time, it was glued to other stones, shells, and metals.

Atsidi Sani taught his sons silversmithing, and they taught others. The craft appeared in Zuni around 1872. Atsidi Chon (Ugly Smith) taught his close Zuni friend, Lanyade, the skills. The Zuni were already skilled in metalworking, making items in copper, brass, and iron. It is said that Lanyade paid Atsidi Chon “one good horse” for his instruction.

Lanyade learned the trade well. He began touring the various pueblos selling his jewelry. While on Hopi First Mesa at Sichomovi, he taught the first Hopi silversmith, Sikyatala, the skills. Since Lanyade was taught by a Navajo and the Hopi were taught by Lanyade, all the jewelry of the period was Navajo in style. As a side note, this is why history of origin-ownership is so important for 19th century jewelry in properly identifying its origin. It’s too easy to say that because it looks like Navajo work it is therefore of Navajo origin. This is simply not true.

During these early years, the use of solder was learned and developed, as was the skills of making silver dies. Soldering permitted the artistic and permanent joining of two or more metal pieces, resulting in a multitude of design possibilities and the ability to set stones. Die making was probably adopted from the many leather tooling dies used by Spanish, Mexican, and later Indians, to work both leather and tin.

Over time, the styles that were basically of Navajo origin were gradually modified by their pueblo students. The Zuni, who were excellent lapidaries, slowly changed their work to the fine and channel inlay we now associate with them. However, the Hopi change occurred a bit more abruptly.

In 1938, the Museum of Northern Arizona in Flagstaff, Arizona, working with Hopi silversmiths Paul Saufkie and Fred Kabote, began a program of developing a style that was exclusively Hopi. The “overlay” technique they created involved the cutting of designs in a heavy gauge silver sheet and then soldering this to a solid silver sheet. The designs were usually adapted from the pottery shards found in the Sikyatki Pueblo ruins of the 15th and 16th centuries. These pre-Hopi designs were mostly bird motifs. The Hopi also used kachina symbols, animal and clan motifs.

Today's Indian silversmiths

Today’s Indian silversmiths are, in many cases, also goldsmiths and lapidaries. They cross tribal design boundaries with will and abandon. No longer can you look at a piece and say, “It’s Zuni style so it must be Zuni-made.” The artist of today may incorporate into a single piece all the styles available, plus his or her own innovation. Indian jewelry today transcends tribal styles, and may even be contemporary in it's design style.

The best way to determine what tribe a particular piece of jewelry came from is to verify the tribe the artist belongs to. In modern times, an artist can register a hallmark symbol that can be stamped on the back or inner surface of a piece of jewelry. This mark can be a particular small design, the artist's initials, or even his/her full surname. This is like a brand, signifying the jewelry piece was made by the particular artist who registered that jewelry mark.

Real sterling silver jewelry may also contain a stamp that says "sterling," "ss," or ".925." Any of these markings verify the item is made from silver that is at least 92.5 % pure silver. Silver jewelry is never 100% silver, or it would be too soft to stand up to wear. However, not all native american indian jewelry will contain this artist mark or one of the sterling symbols. Many professional artists only sign what they consider to be their best work, and many indian artists on remote reservations never bother to register their mark.

The Meanings of Turquoise

Turquoise has been native to jewelry in the Southwest for over 2000 years. As mentioned earlier, turquoise was a very important item to the early inhabitants of North and South America. The stone was used in religion, art, trade, treaty negotiations, and jewelry. It was considered by some to be associated with life itself.

Turquoise has also been used for medical purposes. These uses varied from land to land and from age to age. Some thought it could prevent injury through accident, prevent blindness (by placing perfect stones over the eyes or ground into a salve) and cure stomach disorders, internal bleeding, and stings from snakes and scorpions, when ingested as a powder.

Turquoise also found its way into the mystic arts. Its color could forecast good or bad, predict the weather, and influence dreams. It was good for nearly every ailment —including insanity. As a good luck talisman, it found usage in nearly every culture.

According to the Pima, turquoise was a talisman of good fortune and strength to renounce ailments. However, if you lost a turquoise you would be afflicted by a physical ailment treatable only by a Medicine Man.

The Zuni believed the blue turquoise was male and of the sky, and that green was female and of the earth. Most Zuni fetishes were either made of turquoise or had turquoise properties such as eyes, mouths, or attachments of turquoise, to give it more power. Turquoise was powerful and important to most early ceremonials.

The Hopi have many traditions regarding turquoise. They adorn their most important fetishes with turquoise to enhance their powers. In one legend, turquoise is the excrement of lizards, an animal that is greatly respected for his above- and below-world connections. The Hopi believed that turquoise can hold back floods, a common problem in the desert Southwest.

The Apache felt attaching turquoise to a gun or a bow will cause the weapon to shoot straight. It brought rain and could be found at the end of all rainbows. It was key to the strength of their medicine men. Geronimo is said to have always carried a piece of turquoise wherever he went.

According to the Navajo, wearing turquoise brings good fortune and insures favor with the Yeis, who mediate between man and the supernatural. When thrown into a river with the proper ceremonies, turquoise will help bring rain. Turquoise is offered to the Wind Spirit to appease him; the Navajo myth is that when the wind is blowing, it is searching for turquoise. The Navajo carve fetishes out of turquoise for increased powers and fortunes. Turquoise is the sacred stone and color of the south and the upper world. The “Sacred Mountain of the South,” Mt. Taylor near Grants, New Mexico, is made from a mixture of turquoise and earth. The mountains are inhabited by Turquoise Girl. Turquoise plays many roles in their healing ceremonies and sand paintings.

The Squash Blossom Necklace

The squash blossom necklace is often the cornerstone of Indian jewelry collections. However, this particular necklace style did not exist before the 1880s, at least it wasn't mentioned by Washington Mathews in his Navajo Silversmiths Second Annual Report, 1880–1881.

The squash blossom necklace itself orginiated with the Navajos. but was adopted by the Zunis who added turquoise on each of the blossoms, which was copied by later Navajo artists. The Navajo word for the “squash blossom” bead is "yo ne maze disya gi," which means simply “bead that spreads out.” Nothing in the word denoted squash or pomegranate blossom. It is unclear where the squash blossom reference came from.

The principle part of the necklace is the crescent shaped pendent. This was first seen by Southwestern Indians as iron ornaments on the horse bridles of the Spanish Conquistadors in the late 1500's and early 1600's. These crescent shaped pendants, originally brought from Spain, were called najahe or naja, and reflected the influence of earlier Moorish conquests and the occupation of Spain.

Captured or traded for, these ornaments became popular and the ornament was reproduced in various metals. Because the Navajo wear their finest jewelry during special ceremonies, this necklace became associated with ceremonials. As most ceremonials were related to the agricultural cycle the naja was eventually associated with crop fertility. In earlier times, this ornament was probably worn on a simple rawhide string.

The first Navajo silver beads were large, unornamental and round. From these, more complicated ones developed, such as fluted beads and oval beads. Often dimes and quarters were fastened to a silver shank and strung between the beads. Occasionally these coins were domed, filled and made into beads.

The Navajo and Zuni also used Spanish-Mexican trouser and jacket ornaments, often fashioned to resemble the pomegranate, a common Spanish decorator motif, as beads. Early Navajo “squash blossom” beads show a striking similarity to the Mexican ornament and the pomegranate. Still, despite the similarities, there is quite a bit of doubt that the original Navajo artist attempted to depict this blossom in his bead.

Today, the squash blossom necklace is a favorite of both Navajo and Zuni indians, and the non-indian collectors of native american indian jewelry.

Related links on this site:

Full Question:
I am a non-denominational wedding minister in North Carolina. I have a bridal couple that want to include the wedding vase in their ceremony. Do you have the wording that you can share for this ceremony? We would greatly appreciate your help. Thank you.
--Submitted by Bonnie C.


Answer:

The Wedding Vase Ceremony

There aren't really any words with this ceremony. First the bride drinks from one side of the vase. Then she turns it and the Groom drinks from the opposite site. Then they both drink at the same time and it's said if they don't spill anything the marriage will have good luck and prosper. It's sort of like the anglo custom of the bride and groom cutting the cake and feeding a piece to each other. They don't necessarily need to make a speech first.

The Basket Ceremony

Usually, the Basket Ceremony is performed prior to the Wedding Vase Ceremony. Symbolic of a time when large dowries were sometimes required by the families of the bride and groom, the practice of exchanging baskets filled with meaningful gifts developed.For example, the bride's basket to the groom may be filled with bread and corn representing her promise to nurture and support her new husband. The groom's basket might contain meat and skins representing his promise to feed and clothe the bride.

However, as weddings are personal, you can add anything you want. Perhaps you could recite the

I have three pieces of pottery I want to give to the Cahokian Indians. I've been told they are authhentic, and I bought them at a local flea market . I have not had them authenticated , but the person I bought them from said he dug them himself. If they are, I do want them to go to the proper people not just a collector or someone that just wants to resell them for profit. Although I did pay for them.I was wondering if you might know of someone in my area that may be able to take them off my hands from a tribe near me. Or a way for me to contact the proper representatives to take them to.
--Submitted by Steven L.
Answer:

The Cahokian indians are all extinct and have been for hundreds of years. First, I'm not a pottery expert, and I have not seen the pots, but from what you have told me, I am very sceptical that the pots are likely to be what they were represented to be. Here are some of the reasons I doubt their authenticiy.

Above:Example of Cahokia era pottery Below: Example of modern reproduction of Cahokia style pottery

1) You bought the pots at a flea market from a stranger and not from a known archaeologist, an expert pottery dealer, or museum. A flea market wouldn't be my first thought for the best place to sell something like that if it was obtained in a legitimate archaeological dig. But then, if they came from a legitimate dig with the proper permits, I doubt they would be for sale at all, and I'll explain why below.

2) They didn't have a Certificate of Authenticity that came with them documenting a paper trail detailing in great detail the permits that authorized their excavation, and when and how and where they were aquired.

3) You didn't mention what you paid for them, but I didn't get the impression it was a huge price. If they really are that old, they would be very valuable. In fact, if they are really from Cahokian mounds, they are priceless artifacts. If you didn't pay a small fortune, my guess would be they are either fakes made in Mexico or the dealer dug them illegally and really had no idea what they were worth.

4) Since you only have the seller's word that he dug them up somewhere and no specific location was identified, I would be inclined to think it was only a line he gave you to get you to buy them. There are as many flea market vendors that are unscruptulous characters as there are honest ones, especially if they aren't regular sellers that are there every week. Telling people that things are old is a favorite ploy unscruptulous flea market dealers use to induce a sale.

The Cahokian Mounds are located in the Mississipi river valley regions of southwestern Illinois. The Cahokia Indians are believed to have lived at Cahokia Mounds (also known as Monk's Mounds), the largest mounds still remaining, and at least 120 other identified mound locations from 700 A.D. until about 1300, when their civilization began a rapid decline, and their civilization completely disappeared by 1500.

CAHOKIA MOUNDS is located just outside of Collinsville, Illinois, a short distance off Interstates 55/70 and 255, along Route 40 in a State Historical Park, which is land held in trust for the public.

Archeologists believe the Cahokian Moundbuilders' decendants were the Natchez Indians, who were already in severe decline by the time the first Colonial explorers reached the Mississippi in 1673. Soon afterward, the Nachez Indians were completely wiped out by the French during a series of Indian wars along the river, so the Cahokian civilization has been extinct for about 500 to 600 years, AND their more modern decendants have been extinct for at least 300 years.

If he did indeed "dig them up," that is a federal crime since most of the Cahokian Mounds I am aware of are burial sites and protected under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. Even if they didn't come from a burial site, the Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 makes it a felony crime for excavating, removing, damaging, altering, or defacing any archaeological resource more than 100 years of age, on public or Indian lands, unless authorized by a permit. It also prohibits the sale, purchase, exchange, transportation, receipt, or offering of any archaeological resource.

There are a whole slew of other laws that make digging up cultural artifacts, transporting them, buying or selling them a serious crime.

In the External links section below, you will find links to the full text of the major Federal laws, regulations, standards and guidelines, and executive orders related to cultural resources management. The complete Federal Historic Preservation Laws book is available through the National Park Service.

I'm currently doing some research on the Lummi Indians within the San Juan Island (WA) area. I'd appreciate learning about their general customs, health rituals/medicines & their symbols. Thanx for responding at your earliest convenience.
--Submitted by Deb L..


Answer:

FULL QUESTION:
Are there any indian reservations in Florida? We heard there was a tribe in Ormond Beach, Florida but cannot get any info on them.
--Submitted by Marie F.
Answer:

I want to bring my daughter, (social security number removed) who is 17 years old, to your Cherokee Tribe office to get a photo id and information about what we have to do to get her money for college. Who do I need to call to find out about college financial aid?
--Submitted by Linda H.
Answer:

I know the Blackfeet Indians had a reputation as fierce warriros and excellent horsemen. But did they develop a particular breed of horse?
--Submitted by John L.
Answer:

how the blackfoot aquired the horse.

Alexander Culbertson, and other white men who had known these Indians since the 1830's, stated that "the Blackfeet had possessed horses as far back as their traditions extended but never in considerable numbers in early times, and even as late as 1833 they were poorly mounted." He estimated that "about the year 1830 the Piegan owned an average of 10 horses per lodge, while the Blood and North Blackfoot averaged but 5 horses per lodge".

While archaeologists generally believe the ancestors of the modern horse first originated in the Americas, it is a commonly accepted theory that the horse migrated to Asia about 20,000 years ago, when the sea levels were lower and exposed a land bridge , and evolved there, while becoming extinct in the Americas long before they became populated with humans about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Most Indian tribes say they have been here much longer than that, too, but that is another story.

Przewalski Horse

The modern horse species is thought to be a descendant of the Przewalski horse, which is now extinct except in Mongolia. It is so different, it has 66 chromosomes, compared to the 64 that we find in all other horses. This is a very primitive kind of horse, one probably quite similar to what ancient peoples first domesticated. Then again, some researchers believe that the Przewalski Horse represents a whole different species than our domesticated horses, like the donkey, which has 62 chromosomes, or the zebra, which has has between 44 and 62 (depending on species). Two chromosomes is also the difference between humans and apes.

The horses first brought by Columbus, Ponce de Leon, and Cortez were a breed called Spanish Mustangs. This breed combines the blood of the Arabian, Spanish Barb, Lipizzaners, and Spanish Jennet. These mustangs were the war horses of the Moors, who overran the Spanish. In the 1400s, the Spanish rose up and vanquished the Moors, keeping their small, tough, horses which later became known as the Spanish Mustang.

When Columbus came the New World on his second trip in 1493, Spanish Mustangs were aboard his ships, and when Cortes landed in Mexico in 1519, Spanish Mustangs were brought for use as cavalry horses to invade the Aztec Empire.

Some of these animals escaped and a small number were eventually recaptured by Indians. Others remained wild and were never recaptured. These are called ferrel horses.

Spanish Mustang

More Spanish horses were brought over from other lines by later Spanish explorers and conquistidors. These Spanish enslaved the Pueblo Indians and made them work for them mining gold in horrible conditions. In 1680, the Pueblo Indians revolted against the Spanish rule and the Spaniards left thousands of horses behind in their hasty retreat. The Indians could have rounded up these horses, but chose to let them run wild. It was much easier to raid the Spanish settlements and steal horses. In an effort to stop the Indian raids, the Spanish government shipped a steady flow of mounts to the New World. It was hoped that the Indians would catch the "wild" horses and leave the Spaniards alone.

Tens of thousands of the Spanish-bred horses were herded to the Rio Grande and turned loose in a 200-year period. These horses soon met up with draft horses and cowboy ponies that escaped from the ranchers and farmers arriving from the East. Their numbers exceeded two million by the year 1900.

Ranchers took to killing these horses in the mid 1900s to protect the range-land for their cattle. Fewer than 17,000 wild horses remained by the year 1970. In 1971, Congress passed the Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act. An estimated 41,000 Mustangs roam public range today, but few if any have much original Spanish blood. The only exception I know of is the Kiger Mustang Herd, which was culled from a larger wild herd and relocated to two specific protected areas set aside for them.

The main line of ferrel horses eventually became known as the American Mustang, best known in the Western United States as the wild horse that is now distributed by the BLM "Adopt A Horse" program. These wild mustangs are considered a different breed than the Spanish Mustang because they were introduced primarily from mixed lines of Spanish horses, and also interbred heavily with other breeds that escaped from ranchers and settlers later, although the two are often confused and erroneously the terms are sometimes used interchangeably.

The pure Spanish Mustangs are now referred to by a variety of names: Spanish Barb, Spanish Mustang, Spanish Colonial Horses, to name a few. Examples of specific lines that developed from the Spanish Mustang are the Nez Perce's famous Appaloosa, which was also slaughtered by the thousands after the surender of the Nez Perce, and the Blackfoot Buffalo Horse. The surviving Nez Perce and Cayuse horses were later crossed with draft horses in an attempt to ruin their use as war ponies.

Blackfoot Buffalo Horse

Some of the original Cortez horses were given to Jesuit Priests in what is now Mexico, who established breeding programs and distributed the horses to the Indian tribes they were trying to convert. Apache raiding parties found the camps of these tribes who had received horses to be easy targets and soon established a thriving trade economy with their excess horses. Primarily through the Apache trade network, most of the Plains Indians eventually aquired horses by the early to mid 1700s.

The Comanche became the middlemen in the horse trade between Indian tribes and French settlements east of the Mississippi. Horses spread out of the southwest in primarily two directions. They moved north to the Ute, who traded with the Shoshone and from them to the Nez Perce, Flatheads, and by 1740 to the Crow. At the same time, the horse trade extended in the north and east to the Kiowa and Pawnee and then to the Arikara.

Typical "tiger stripes" leg markings of the Spanish Mustang

It's generally accepted that the Blackfeet got horses from the Nez Perce and Flatheads around 1730. Animals bred from their own herds comprised a good proportion of the horses owned by the Blackfoot in 19th-century buffalo days.

Many Horses and Many-White-Horses are mentioned frequently in discussions of Blackfeet breeding practices, and were among the most sucessful horse breeders. The Blackfoot believed that those men who were very successful in raising horses possessed a secret power that insured their success in that enterprise.

While the Nez Perce are the only tribe known to have practiced selective breeding, the Blackfeet concentrated on raising Spanish Mustangs to serve as buffalo runners and war horses.

Dorsal stripe on back

Blackfoot efforts in breeding generally were directed toward producing one or more of three qualities in colts. These were (1) a certain color, (2) large size, and (3) swiftness of foot. While they did not practice selective breeding, allowing their stallions to breed with any mare in the herd they owned, they did select the stallions for a particular trait. Highly valued buffalo horses were kept inside the lodge at night or picketed nearby. For many tribes, the highest war honor was to take a picketed buffalo horse from an enemy village.

Blackfoot hostility to nearly all neighboring tribes made regular, large-scale trading operations impossible. Horses were aquired mostly by raids on other tribes, the Flathead and Nez Perce, in particular. A man who owned forty or more horses was considered wealthy in the days of the horse culture.

Horse medicine (ponokâmita saám) was and still is considered the most secret and one of the most powerful medicines of the Blackfoot. Few Blackfoot are willing to discuss its intricacies. The following seem to have been the most prominent and/or most active horse medicine doctors and Blackfoot horse breeders during the buffalo days: the Piegan Indians Wolf Calf, Fish Child, White Antelope, Boy, and Generous Woman; the Blood Indians Water-Old-Man, Owner-of-Sacred-White-Horse, Many-Spotted-Horses, and Ghost Woman; and the North Blackfoot Indian, Yellow Lodge. Ghost Woman was the only female known to have possessed horse medicine powers.

Blackfeet Buffalo Runner Horse

Among the South Piegan, at least, the horse medicine men comprised an organized cult, the members of which attended the cult ceremony, the horse dance, and exchanged secrets of the uses of specific medicines, and throughout much if not all of the cult's known history had a recognized leader. Wolf Calf, also known as Pemmican Maker, was the originator of the horse medicine cult among the Piegan.

Blackfoot elders interviewd in the 1940s recalled that there were herds of wild horses in the Blackfoot Country in their youth. Lazy Boy attributed their origin to strays from Indian camps, domesticated horses that ran off and became wild after large numbers of Indians died in the early smallpox epidemics.

Blackfoot elders in the 1940s said that very few wild horses were caught by the Blackfoot. Most captured adults died after they reached camp. WeaselHead claimed they could not endure the smoke from lodge fires. Some colts and yearlings were captured and raised successfully. However the taking of wild horses was confined largely to horse medicine men who had the power to attract those animals with the secret medicines.

The Blackfoot Buffalo Horse is a medium sized horse ranging from 13 2 to 15 hands (a hand is about six inches and is measured at the front shoulder) with an average size of approximately 14 2 hands. They weigh between approximately 700 and 1200 pounds. They are smooth muscled with short backs, rounded rumps and low set tails. The feet are extremely sound with thick walls, many having what is typically known as a "mule foot" which resists bruising due to the concave sole. Canons are short, the upper foreleg is long, with the canon bone having a larger circumference than other breeds of comparable size and weight.

The Blackfoot Buffalo Horse is also known for being able to survive on poor grazing conditions that will not support other horse breeds.

Spanish Mustang BiColor Mane

Colors are extremely varied, representing all the color combinations found in the modern horse but their conformation and size tend to be distinctive. Specific color traits include a dorsal stripe running from the base of the tail to the withers, although this is more pronounced in some animals than others, not visible on the topcoat in some animals. Leg markings called tiger stripes or zebra stripes are also common. The Blackfoot Buffalo Horse is also known for it's extra long tail and mane hair. Another unusual trait is that the mane and tail hair often starts as one color at the top and is a different color at the tips.

When the Blackfoot tribe was conquered and relocated to the reservation, their horses were confiscated and thousands of them were slaughtered. Like many cultural traditions, the Blackfoot Buffalo Horse was nearly lost. Then, in 1925, Robert Brislawn of Oshoto, Wyoming, a packer for the U.S. Topographical Service, set out to save the breed. Brislawn bought up the known Spanish Mustangs and began breeding them. In 1957, the Spanish Mustang Registry was formed and horses with proven bloodlines were registered.

Jack Hines, a painter and writer who paints scenes from the old west, visited the Brislawn ranch looking for authentic models of the Indian horse to use for his paintings. Shortly after Hines discovered the Brislawn horses, he visited a man named Bob Black Bull on the Blackfeet Reservation in Northern Montana.

He said he wanted the Blackfeet to have Spanish Mustangs again, so he gave two stallions he bought from the Brislawns to Black Bull. Black Bull had just sold Jack an expensive piece of artwork, so he took the money and bought six mares from the Brislawns. This was the first herd to return to the Blackfeet Nation since the reservation had been established in the 1800's. From the beginning, the return of the mustangs stirred a reawakening among tribal members.

Word spread that the first buffalo runners were going to arrive, and on that day, people came from all over the reservation and beyond. "They came by carload and busload, young and old alike, just to see the horses. I think they remembered that these horses were our lifeline to the past," Black Bull said.

Spanish Mustang Colt

The Blackfeet Buffalo Horse Coalition, a non-profit corporation, was founded in 1994. Black Bull has established a lease program for people who want personal involvement with the buffalo runners. An individual or family can lease a stallion and two or three mares at no cost, provided they have an appropriate facility and can provide the necessary hay and grain.

"If they have one foal," Black Bull explains, "it's theirs. If they have two, they keep one and one comes back to the base herd. If three foals are involved, they keep two and one comes back."

The Spanish Mustangs have sparked among tribal members a mental and spiritual return to days gone by.

RELATED LINKS ON THIS SITE:

How a Piegan Warrior Caught the First Horses
A Blackfoot legend about the Piegan Blackfoot who caught the first horses.

How Sky Dogs (the horse) came to the Blackfeet
A story told by a Blackfoot, He-Who-Loves-Horses, about the coming of the first horses to the Blackfoot people.

Water Sprit's Gift of Horses
Another Blackfoot legend explaining how they got horses.

The Buffalo Rock
A Blackfoot legend about a special rock that gave power for a good buffalo hunt. It also describes the Blackfoot method of hunting buffalo before they aquired the horse.

Horse Gifts
Shop for merchandise featuring horses.

Blackfeet Indian Nations: Siksika, Bloods, Peigans, and Browning Blackfeet
Brief overview of the Blackfeet tribes.

Indian symbols used on the war horse
The Indian war horse was highly regarded by its American Indian owner, who often honored and protected his war horse by painting tribal symbols upon the animal's body.

Indian symbols used on the hunting horse
Since the Indian hunting horse had different duties than that of a war horse, a different set of symbols were used to aid the hunting horse and his rider.

EXTERNAL LINKS:

Blackfeet Buffalo Horse Coalition
The Blackfeet Buffalo Horse Coalition, founded in 1994, was established to bring the Buffalo Runner horse back to the Blackfeet Nation. The BBHC goals are to preserve the Buffalo Runner horse, offer a positive cultural lifestyle to youth, and aid in the creation of a viable economy for the reservation. Bob Black Bull is the executive director.

Spanish Mustang Registry
The first and oldest Mustang Registry for dedicated breeders, owners and enthusiasts of the Spanish Mustang.

The Nokota Horse Conservancy
The Nokota Horse Conservancy is a nonprofit organization established in 1999 dedicated to preserving the native horse of the Northern Plains called the Nokota horse. Nokota horses are descended from the last surviving population of wild horses in North Dakota

Adopt A Horse Program
Information on the Adopt-a-Horse-or-Burro program and how to qualify for adoption. This program is run by the Bureau of Land Management.

Florida Cracker Horse Association
Florida Cracker Horses are the descendents of horses brought here by Ponce de Leon in 1521. These horses have been restricted to a relatively small geographical area making them as pure in bloodline, if not more so, than any of the other descendents of early Spanish horses. The name comes from the loud crack of whips used by riders while herding and penning cattle. Cracker horses have been known by a variety of names: Chickasaw Pony, Seminole Pony, March Tackie, Praire Pony, and Grass Gut.

Kiger Mustangs
In 1977, during a BLM wild horse roundup, 27 horses were discovered that were strikingly similar in color and conformation. They all carried the dominiant genes which code for the primitive dun factor and the primitive markings of the Spanish mustangs. Genetic tests proved they carry Spanish Mustang genes. These horses were separated from the wild herd and later twenty were released in the Kiger Horse Management Area, and seven in the Riddle HMA in Oregon. The Kiger Mesteño Association was founded in July 1988 to protect and preserve this line and a registry and Standard of Perfection was established for Kiger and half-Kiger horses.

Przewalski Horse
The Przewalski Horse is also known as Asiatic Wild Horse, Mongolian Wild Horse, Mongolian Tarpan, and Taki. This is an article about the history and origin of this animal and its present day counterpart.

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I am looking to buy smudge sticks or products to relieve my home of a spirit family. I was told to go to a reserve in Arizona and buy from an old woman behind the counter. I have no clue as to where this is. Tell me, where are the directions to this place?
--Submitted by Phoenix Fun
Answer:

Hi Phoenix,
There are several different tribal areas called reservations in Arizona. In the United States, they are called reservations. In Canada, these tribal areas are called reserves. I don't know this old woman you speak of, but I can tell you about the
Four Sacred Smoke Medicines: Tobacco, Sage, Sweetgrass, and Cedar.

All of them can be used to smudge with, although sage, cedar and sweetgrass also have many other medicinal uses and healing properties.



Briefly, tobacco invites the spirits to listen, sage and cedar drive out negative energy, and sweetgrass invites in positive, healing spirits. When any one of these herbs is used in conjunction with another in this group, it inhances or compliments the powers of both.

On a medicine wheel, tobacco sits at the eastern door, sweetgrass at the southern door, sage in the west and cedar in the north. It is said that the spirits like or dislike the aroma produced when we burn tobacco and the other sacred medicines.

Tobacco

Tobacco is used as an offering for everything and is used in every ceremony. Tobacco always comes first. It opens the door so that we can communicate with the spirit world. It carries our prayers to the spirit realm. Before we harvest any animal or herb from nature, we first make a tobacco offering and say a prayer, telling the plant or animal why we are there and for what purpose we need it's help and thanking it for its use. In all ceremonies, we begin with the smoking of tobacco and a prayer.

Indian Tobacco Lobelia inflata

According to Rolling Thunder, a Cherokee elder, “After you light tobacco, with your first puff, you should think a good thought or make a prayer. With your second, quiet your mind; rest in stillness. With your third puff, you can receive insight related to your prayer – perhaps an image, words spoken by spirit, or an intuitive feeling.”

There is a wild tobacco plant that was grown by Indians long before Europeans came and is still harvested by many. In the modern world, commercial tobacco is most often used as a substitute, from bulk tobacco like Bull Durham, or even crushed cigarettes. The tobacco smoked in the canupa, or peace pipe, is never a narcotic substance.

Sweetgrass

Sweetgrass Braids

Sweetgrass, Hierochloe odorata

Sweetgrass is called the sacred hair of Mother Earth. Sweetgrass is a narrow leaved grass that only grows, as far as I know, in a few places in central Montana, Minnesota, South Dakota, and Northwest Iowa in the US, and southern Alberta, Canada, and is usually sold woven into a braid. It has a sweet smell when burned, and when the grass is fresh picked which some say reminds them of vanilla. Others say it smells like fresh mown hay. A new braid will be green and turns brown with age. As it ages, it loses some of its potency.

It can be difficult to keep sweetgrass burning when it's fresh, so often a small piece is snipped from the end of the braid and unraveled to burn in a dish or abalone shell, and fanned with a feather to create air circulation. When sweetgrass is used in a healing ceremony, it has a calming effect. Like sage and cedar, sweetgrass is used for smudging and purification, however, it's not considered as strong a medicine as sage and cedar. Spirits are said to like it's smell, and are attracted to it. So, if you are trying to get spirits to leave you, you probably don't want to use sweetgrass.

Cedar

Cedar tree foliage

Cedar smudge sticks

Cedar is most often used spiritually to purify the home and sweat lodge. It is also used for protection, as well as many medicinal uses. Finely ground cedar may be burned in a dish or abalone shell in the home or stems may be wrapped into a smudge stick. The smoke is then fanned with a feather over objects and people one wishes to purify or protect. In sweatlodges, cedar boughs often line the floor for the same purposes.

When cedar is put into a fire with tobacco, it crackles. When it does this, it is calling the attention of the spirits to the offering that is being made. Cedar is sold either as a smudge stick or as ground chips.

Sage

Sage smudge sticks

Sage is probably what you were told to get. Sage grows wild across the southwest and western half of the US. Sage smudge isn't the same thing as the spice you use to cook with. It comes from the variety of sage commonly called sagebrush, a smaller relative of the mesquite bush. It grows two to three feet tall. It's strongest just before it blooms, about mid to late June in the northern states. That might be about March or April in Arizona and other Southern states. After the bloom, it is putting more energy into the formation of seeds, and there is less potency in the leaves. The fresher it is, the stronger it is, also. You usually don't want a lot of seeds in your smudge sticks, because they can pop when they burn, like popcorn, and can fly off and burn you.

In some tribes there is reference to male and female sage. Male sage is harvested before the plant blooms, female sage is harvested after the bloom. As this name implies, males would use male sage and females would use female sage. Not all tribes make this distinction.

Desert Sagebrush Artemisia tridentata

Sage is used to prepare people for ceremonies and teachings. Because it is more medicinal and stronger than sweetgrass , it tends to be used more often in ceremonies.Sage is used for releasing what is troubling the mind and for removing negative energy. This is why it is used for cleansing homes and sacred items. Negative spirits are said to dislike the smell of sage and are driven away by it. Positive spirits will linger even if sage is burned, if sweetgrass is also used in conjunction with it.

Sage stem tips with the leaves are usually cut from the new growth while still green (it's actually a blue-gray color) and still growing. Take only the new growth and only a little from each plant, so you don't kill the whole plant. These cuttings are then wrapped into "sticks" about 6-18" long by tying string or yarn in cris-crossing Xs all the way up the smudge stick to hold it together. If you are using short pieces, overlap them as you wrap to obtain the desired length. Wrap tightly, a loosely wrapped smudge stick is hard to keep burning and will burn up faster when you do get it lit. Or you can burn the leaves loose in something fireproof like an abalone shell, which has vent holes along one side to let the air in and keep it smouldering.

Keeping it in a zip lock bag or tightly closed container in the freezer keeps it fresher, longer. After about six months to a year, depending on how you stored it, it begins to lose it's potency.

If you are in Phoenix, Arizona, it grows along the highway going to Quartzsite and Blythe, California and in the desert along the highway to Tucson. That is desert sage, the most common kind of sage. It grows in semi-arid areas across the southwestern and western United States.

White Mountain Sagebrush Artemisia Oludoviciana

The most prized sage is called white mountain sage. It's stronger than desert sage and the leaves are narrower, and have a whitish-grey hue. The plants are smaller, usually about a foot tall. You would find that at higher elevations up in the mountains, as the name implies, growing in rocky crevices. In Arizona you'd probably find it in the areas around Flagstaff and Sedona.

The smudge sticks should have a strong, pungent smell, even when unlit. If you can't smell it, it's probably old and stale, and not as powerful.

Taboos

Depending on which tribe you ask, elders say you should not touch or use any of these sacred herbs for four to seven days after consuming drugs or alcohol. While the time varies from tribe to tribe, all warn not to use these sacred herbs soon after you've indulged in alcohol or drugs. Women on their menses also should not handle or use them.

Although most natives believe the sacred herbs should never be sold, some individual tribal members believe it is ok to barter or trade them, and there are always some non-traditional people who are willing to harvest and sell them for cash. There is usually someone who is selling it at most pow wows. It's also sold at many tourist gift shops that sell Indian crafts. And you can buy it over the internet. Just Google "sage sticks" or "sage smude" or "sage smudge sticks" or the same terms substituting sage or sweetgrass, and you will find sellers of these herbs.

RELATED LINKS ON THIS SITE:

We are producing a television programme in the U.K. covering the subject of 'Traditional team sports played throughout the world'. We are interested in filming a documentary about the traditional sport 'Stickball' and would like to speak to someone involved in the organisation of this sport. Could you possibly let me know someone I could contact?

The programme will not just focus on the sport, but also on the origins of such a sport, and the culture surrounding the sport. We are trying to highlight the importance of sport to different regions in each country, and how it is still very important to each and every culture.Many thanks for your help.
--Submitted by Stuart M.
Answer:

I am doing an assignment on american indians. I was just woundering if Zia indians (Zia Pueblo tribe) were american indians? Some of the information on the net is a bit confusing.
--Submitted by Jaspa K.
Answer:

Hi Jaspa,
Yes, the Zia Pueblo Indians are american indians. "Pueblo Indians" is a broad term that includes many separate tribes (villages) named after the pueblos (multi-story communal houses which form a village) they lived in, who were all related by common ancestors in ancient times. The Pueblo Indians are the descendants of the Hohokam, Mogollon, Keresan, and the Anasazi prehistoric cultures of the Southwestern United States and Mexico. While "Pueblo Indians" is often used interchangeably to mean any one of the tribes included under this umbrella, it is not by itself a tribe today.

The word Pueblo is the Spanish name for "town or village" and also refers to the type of structure these people built for their homes. Pueblos are usually multi-story, multi-family structures that contain many rooms, surrounding a central plaza which contains the kiva, a pit room in the ground used for religious ceremonies. The "cliff dwelling" and "cave dwelling" homes of the same geographical region were simply variant forms of the pueblo.

Over a period of hundreds of years, these ancient people split up into smaller groups that settled in different areas, depending on their needs for water, game, materials to build their pueblo homes, and suitable conditions for growing crops of food and providing defense of the village. Usually cliffs and high mesas with good views of the surrounding area were chosen because they were easier to defend against invaders.

The original Pueblo land base extended from about the Arkansas and Grand rivers, in Colorado and Utah, southwards into Mexico, and from central Arizona eastward, almost across the Texas Panhandle.

Because much of the land occupied by the Pueblo Indians is arid or semi-arid land, most of the land could not continue to support huge concentrations of people in the same area. About 1,000 years ago, there was a great drought that lasted for more than 20 years, which it is believed may have caused many pueblo people to abandon many of the larger, original settlements. As the population in an area grew, smaller groups split off and established their own settlements in new areas with better resources, and eventually became new tribes with their own government and new traditions which became specific to that group of people, while still retaining many of the traditions of their common ancestors. The Zia Indians are one of these groups.

From ancient ruins, we know that there were once more than one hundred separate pueblos. In the 1600s, there were about 60,000 Pueblo Indians occupying 90 pueblos. Today, 26 are occupied, excluding the two small Americanized pueblos of Isleta del Sur (Texas) and Senecú (Mexico), which is located near El Paso, Texas. With the exception of these two, all but the seven Hopi pueblos (including Hano) are in New Mexico. The Hopi are in Arizona. All have US Federal recognition as american Indian tribes, except Senecu, which is in Mexico, and San Juan de Guadalupe, which is currently petitioning for recognition.

The tribes that make up the Pueblo Indians originally spoke seven languages from four different linguistic stocks, with regional dialects. However, most Pueblo people today speak a variation of primarily two linguistic stocks, Keresan and Tanoan, as well as English and frequently Spanish. The Pueblo of Zia is part of the Keres Nation. The traditional language is Keresan, but many speak Spanish, some speak Navajo, and most also speak English.This pueblo has been occupied continuously since about 1250 A. D.

There are five Pueblo reservations. The Zia Indian Reservation is located in the flood plain of the Jemez River, and the Pajarito and Jemez Plateaus in Sandoval County, about 35 miles northwest of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Six other pueblos are also located in this county.

The current boundaries of the Pueblo of Zia Reservation cover about 190 square miles or 117,000 acres. Zia Pueblo is located 17 miles (27 km) northwest of Bernalillo and eight miles northwest of Santa Ana Pueblo on U.S. Highway 550. The Jemez Indian Reservation is in the same area, about 15 miles away.

The Zia pueblo is situated beside the Jemez River atop a small mesa which provides a spectacular view of the surrounding areas. Zia Pueblo lands have pine forest, red bluffs, white mesas, sink holes and clear, unimpeded sight lines in each direction from the pueblo. Behind the Zia Pueblo lies the Nacimiento Mountains and the Pajarito and Jemez Plateaus. Once one of the largest of the Río Grande pueblos with eight plazas and 6,000 people, the Zia Pueblo has decreased in size to a population of about 730 today. There are 167 housing units in Zia Pueblo today, with 132 of those owned by individual owners. The remaining structures are communal housing. The Zia pueblo is open to the public during daylight hours only.

More than any other tribes, the Pueblo Indians as a group, and the Zia Indians in particular, have retained most of their traditional beliefs and ways of living and have absorbed very little influence from the dominating European culture in this country. They don't allow photographing of their ceremonies, have a strict protocol of ettiquite for visitors, and discourage sharing information about their culture with the outside world. For this reason, there is very little information specifically about the Zia Indians on the internet.

Most of the Pueblos have annual ceremonies that are open to the public. In many cases, one such ceremony is the Pueblo's feast day, held on the day sacred to its Roman Catholic patron saint. (These saints were assigned by the Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with a traditional Catholic celebration.) The Zia Pueblo's Feast Day, coinciding with the Catholic holiday for Our Lady of the Assumption, is held on August 15th. The main public ceremony held on that day is the Corn Dance. No cameras, sketching or recording are allowed, and this is strictly enforced.

Artists from the Zia Pueblo are best known for their pottery, and to a lesser degree, some Zia artists are known for their water color paintings. Zia pottery is usually an unpolished redware with white slip, with decorations in brown or black, often with a feather or bird motif. This sacred symbol was painted on almost every surviving eighteenth-century Zia pottery vessel.

Zia pottery styles show virtually no European and little curio-market influence, and have changed very little since the mid 1700s. The matte paint styles of Pueblo pottery decoration originated late in the seventeenth century, replacing an earlier glazeware tradition called Puname Polychrome, which was used in Zia pottery originating from the years 1680-1740. The later style, San Pablo Polychrome, bears an old Spanish name for the pueblo of Zia, and is a very sturdy, rather thick walled jar or vase of very pleasing, symmetrical shape. Until about 1765, all these vessels had one feature that is particularly useful for dating purposes: The rim top was always painted red. After that date, the rim tops of Zia pottery have always been painted black.

One of the most important ways Zia pottery differs from their neighbors is the use of hand ground basalt stone as temper for their hand dug clay. This creates a working mixture that is very time-consuming to prepare, but is very strong when fired.

Zia potters rarely polish their pottery to a high shine, preferring a softly sanded, gently polished buff slip background which is then decorated with their traditional symbols, including the Zia bird (roadrunner), and rainbow arcs. Flower forms and cloud points are also commonly used as is the Zia sun symbol. In fact, that is where the idea for it's inclusion on the New Mexico state flag came from. Both the Zia Pueblo flag and the New Mexico State Flag feature the Zia sun symbol.

Dr. Harry Mera, a physician and anthropologist at the Museum of Anthropology in Santa Fe was inspired by a pot that was on display in the museum, which was made by an anonymous Zia potter in the late 1800s. It featured a circle of white ringed in red, and from each of the four prime directions three rays emanated. In the center were two triangular eyes and a rectangular mouth in black.

From this pot, Dr. Mera came up with the red ring with four rays that is the symbol of New Mexico today. In 1925, the state of New Mexico adopted Dr. Mera's burgundy sun on a field of gold as the new state flag of New Mexico. Today, the burgundy appears as bright red.

To the Zia people, the sun symbol is an ancient design. It reflects the basic harmony of all things in the universe. To the Zia, four is a sacred number, as it is with many other Native American tribes. It reflects the four directions, the four seasons, the sunrise, noon, evening and night phases of the day and the four stages of life - childhood, youth, adulthood and old age.

The Zia also believe that man has four sacred obligations: to develop a strong body, a clear mind, a pure spirit and a devotion to the well being of the people.

The Zia have adopted a white flag bearing the red Zia sun symbol exactly as it appears on the New Mexico state flag. Above the Zia sun is the black inscription "Pueblo of Zia." Surrounding the entire flag is a black border. The combination of red, white and black reflect the colors of the Zia pottery.

A few Zia potters still produce the large water jar ollas, up to 24" in height, and their work is prized by collectors of traditional pottery. In addition to the traditional styles, Marcellus Medina, following in the tradition first created by his father and mother, carefully decorates his wife Elizabeth's pots with highly detailed studies of ceremonial dancers, animals and other cultural motifs.

Originally using acrylic paints and mediums over gessoed pots, he is now using traditional colored, natural pigments finely ground and prepared, over finely slipped surfaces. His family's pottery remains the high point of Zia pottery.

Besides the Medina family, the Herreras and Aragon families are famous Zia potter families who are known for their beautiful, prize winning pottery.

RELATED LINKS ON THIS SITE:

How do native americans celebrate Christmas?
--Submitted by Tifany J.
Answer: